Composites Design and Manufacture (Plymouth University teaching support materials) Environmental resistance of composites. |
Lecture PowerPoint 15MB 1 MB reduced version |
Reading Lists |
Review papers |
Subject Index |
![]() |
The key texts for the durability of composites include:
Go direct to ...
Composites in aerospace environments
In the design of composites for aerospace environments, it is necessary to consider that a typical aircraft will be exposed to very low temperatures at cruising height and very high temperatures on the ground in the desert (typically in the range -60 to +60 ºC) and also an extreme range of humidities. In consequence, a key design constraint is the hot-wet glass transition temperature, Tg.
Composites in the marine environment
For general background on Materials in a Marine Environment see, for example:
Additional sources specific to composites include:
APPLICATIONS
Naval vessels
Vosper Thornycroft lead the way to glass fibre reinforced naval vessels with the 450 tonne displacement HMS Wilton launched in January 1972 and commissioned in July 1972. They subsequently developed the Hunt class MCMVs (Mine Counter Measures Vessels) at 725 tonne displacement with the first HMS Brecon launched in June 1978 and commissioned in March 1980. The first 450 tonne Sandown Class SRMH (Single Role Mine Hunter) HMS Sandown was launched in April 1988 and commissioned in June 1989.
The Visby Class of stealth corvettes is being built for the Swedish Navy by the Swedish company Karlskronavarvet. Construction began in 1996. The 600 tonne displacement Visby (K31) was launched in June 2000 and began sea trials in February 2001. She is due to enter operational service in January 2005. The hull material is a sandwich construction comprising a PVC core with a carbon fibre and vinyl laminate. The material provides high strength and rigidity, low weight, good shock resistance, low radar and magnetic signature.
Mirabella V, the largest single masted yacht in the world, was launched in November 2003 and her mast was stepped during December. The 765 tonne (half load displacement) vessel, built by Vosper Thornycroft, has an overall length of 75.22m (247 ft), beam of 14.80m (48.5 ft), draught (keel up) of 4.0m (13 ft), draught (keel fully down) of 10.0m (33 ft) and the mast height is 88.5m (290ft).
Tanks and Pipelines for the Oil and Gas Industry
The Corrosion Resistant Structures Committee of the Reinforced Plastics / Composites Institute within the Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. [355 Lexington Avenue, New York, New York 10017. (212) 573 9400] has published a guide to assist prospective buyers of glass fibre Reinforced Plastic (RP) tanks.
Other applications of composites in the marine environment include:
MATERIALS DEGRADATION
The recommended texts for the durability of composites in the marine environment are:
The saturation moisture content of materials (Mmax%) is dependent on the polymer chemistry as indicated in Table 1:
Mmax% | characteristic | examples | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
<0.5% | only apolar groups | polyolefins, PTFE, polystyrene, polydimethylsiloxane | 1 |
<3.0% | non-hydrogen donors | polyethers, polyesters, cured epoxy | 1 |
<10% | H-donors in hydrogen bonding | polyvinylalcohol, polyacrylic acid, polyacrylamide | 1 |
10.5-12.3% | natural fibres | flax, hemp, jute, sisal | 2 |
Wright [3] plotted the fall in glass transition temperature (Tg) as a function of moisture content for data from epoxy resins (from five separate published papers)and found "as a rough rule-of-thumb" that there was a drop of 20°C for each 1% of water pick-up (data available up to 7% moisture content). For saturated PMMA at 1.92% water pick-up, the Tg was depressed by ~20°C [4]. For PLA microspheres, Tg was reduced from 52°C (~0.3% H2O) to 37°C (3.5% H2O), implying a need for the cautious design of PLA matrix composites to be used in humid tropical environments [5].
Swelling of materials is measured by a Coefficient of Hygroscopic Expansion (CHE, β), also known as the swelling- or moisture- expansion coefficients, and defined as as the strain ε induced by a variation of 1% of moisture content Δm. Anisotropic materials will have different CHE in each direction, but for natural fibres there will be just a longitudinal (axial) and transverse (radial) CHE. Some typical values are given in Table 2.
Material | ε/Δm | Technique | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Hexcel carbon/epoxy UD composite parallel to fibres. T7G145/F584-4 UD prepreg tape |
0.018 | size measurement | 7 |
Hexcel carbon/epoxy UD composite 45° to fibres in-plane |
0.206 | size measurement | 7 |
Hexcel carbon/epoxy UD composite normal to fibres in-plane |
0.241 | size measurement | 7 |
Hexcel carbon/epoxy UD composite through plate thickness |
0.412-0.533 | size measurement | 7 |
carbon/epoxy quasi-isotropic laminate Toray T800H/#3631 [0°/±45°/90°]s |
0.0-0.0047 | assumed, not measured |
8 |
epoxy resin | 0.003 | 9 | |
epoxy (unfilled) | 0.22 | size measurement | 10 via 6 |
flax single fibre | 1.14 (radial) | 11 | |
moulding compounds | 0.16-0.27 | Moiré interferometry | 12 via 6 |
moulding compounds | 0.24-0.26 | Size measurement | 13 via 6 |
moulding compounds | 0.45-1.53 | TMA/TGA | 14 via 6 |
wood fibres | 0.3 (radial) | 15 via 11 | |
wood fibres | 0.45 (radial) | 16 via 11 |
Osmosis and blistering (and how to avoid it !)
See Searle and Summerscales (referenced above), the PassionForPaint website or the West System page entitled Worrying About Osmosis?
The Ken Hankinson book How to Fiberglass Boats (2nd edition) claims to present the most up-to-date and complete information available from a single source for anyone interested in covering new or used boats with a protective layer of fibreglass using either polyester or epoxy resins. This easy-to-read book takes the fear and mystery out of fibreglass work and helps the amateur avoid costly and tedious pitfalls. The clearly described methods are both simple and proven, making a first-class job possible by anyone willing to follow the easy non-technical instructions. Topics include fibreglass sheathing materials and which to use, resins, hardeners, catalysts, pigments, "wet" and "dry" application methods, "tips" the pros use, safety aspects, estimating materials, surface prep for both old and new boats, finishing methods, and much more! In addition to fibreglass, alternative materials such as polypropylene, "Dynel", "Arabol", "Kevlar" and carbon fibre are covered as they apply to sheathings.
There are facilities for deep submergence testing at:
Under certain conditions liquids can change to the vapour phase. This phenomenon, known as cavitation, imposes serious limitations on pumps, pipelines and propulsion systems if damage is to be avoided:
Karimi and Martin have reviewed the cavitation erosion of materials. A book by Tillner et al has the specific aim of damage limitation and damage avoidance in pumps and their installations. Micrographs of cavitation damage in metals are presented in The Atlas of Metal Damage.
The University of Newcastle Marine Technology cavitation tunnel publications are listed on-line.
Hiroharu Kato has an online bibliography for cavitation in hydrofoils and propellers (201 papers at 08 October 2004).
The Copper Development Association has published data on cavitation erosion resistance.
The published work on cavitation erosion of polymeric materials, and especially composites, is very limited [1-10]:
The corrosion of metals and semiconductors involves the flow of an electric current within the material. Most of the constituent materials in fibre-reinforced laminates are insulators and, in consequence, electrochemical corrosion is not an issue. However, carbon (graphite) acts as a noble metal, lying between platinum and titanium in the galvanic series. Carbon fibres should not be used where they can come into contact with structural metals (especially aluminium or magnesium) in the presence of a conducting fluid (eg sea-water). A thin glass fibre surface layer may be sufficient to prevent the formation of such a galvanic corrosion cell.
Summerscales [1] has reviewed the use of organisms and enzymes for (a) extraction of fibres from plant material (retting), (b) surface modification of fibres, and (c) end-of-life treatments, in the context of bast fibres and their composites. The use of enzyme processes at large scale is limited by the extended treatment times, costs of the enzymes and equipment, wastewater treatment and the current low level of adoption by industry.
A new esterase class of enzymes (PETases) has recently been identified that can catalyse the hydrolysis of poly(ethylene terephthalate) [2-5]. Although the result is specific to a high performance (high melting point) thermoplastic system, it does indicate that it may be practical to develop similar systems to process unsaturated polyester thermoset resin matrices.
Pangallo et al [6] isolated fungal and bacterial microflora from an epoxy resin used in the creation and conservation of sculptures. The microbial community composed of rock-inhabiting members, algal photobionts (Trebouxia spp., Chloroidium ellipsoideum and Chlorella angustoellipsoidea), Cyanobacteria (Leptolyngbya sp., Phormidium sp., Cylindrospermum stagnale, Hassallia byssoidea and Geitlerinema sp.), black yeasts related to the species Friedmanniomyces endolithicus, Pseudotaeniolina globosa, Phaeococcomyces catenatus and Catenulostroma germanicum and several plant-associated fungi. Eliaz et al [7] identified that synergistic bacterial growth took place during biodegradation of epoxy resin when Rhodococcus rhodochrous and Ochrobactrum anthropi were the only carbon source available for the microrganisms.
The National Paint and Coatings Association glossary contains terms used commonly in the paint and coatings industry to describe the characteristics, usage and components of paints and coatings.
PaintSquare is the on-line home of The Journal of Protective Coatings & Linings (JPCL) and Protective Coatings Europe (PCE) and a portal to the protective and marine coatings industry.
Since its inception in 1926, the Paint Research Association (PRA) has been the premier research association in the coatings field. Today, it is the largest independent coatings centre of its kind, basing itself on a worldwide membership, trans-national activities and a global network of contacts.
The Oil & Colour Chemists Association was founded in 1918. More commonly known as OCCA, it is a learned society comprising individual, qualified persons employed in, or associated with, the world-wide surface coatings industries. The majority of its Members are working in a technical capacity, however its membership includes senior personnel in many roles throughout the surface coating industries. The word 'Oil' in its title refers to the vegetable oils, which once formed a major part of surface coatings' formulations.
VIDEO: Tony Ryan, Watching Paint Dry, 2011
ANTI-FOULING TECHNOLOGIES ... this section has been moved: click here
FIRE: FLAME, SMOKE AND TOXICITY (FST)
Mouritz and Gibson [2006 book] have published a book which covers all of the key issues on the behaviour of composites in a fire, including thermal degradation mechanisms, thermal softening, fire damage mechanics, and deterioration of mechanical properties. Also covered are fire protection materials for composites, fire properties of nanocomposites, fire safety regulations and standards, fire test methods, and health hazards from burning composites.
The International Maritime Fire and Rescue Information website FireNet (Maritime) includes a Special Interest Network being developed to cover Ship Fire Fighting Techniques, Training, Procedures and any interesting marine related topics within this type of environment.
NoFire Technologies are manufacturers of patented high performance fire retardant paint and products. They specialise in research, design and engineering of fire and heat protection system solutions for industry, government and public safety. After extensive independent and Naval testing, NoFire A-18 NV is been listed on the U S Navy Qualified Products List (QPL) and NoFire A-18 Fire Retardant Marine Paint is approved by US Coast Guard for use on all ships.
References for Fire, Smoke and Toxicity (FST)
Further reading