Composites Design and Manufacture John Summerscales: student projects available for Academic Year 2023-24 (and beyond)

Lecture PowerPoint

Review papers

Subject Index

The following outline some current areas of interest.  New titles in bold red.
Note that there is a broader list of titles without descriptions at the end of the page.

The following are offered as guidelines. I would be happy to supervise projects on related subjects subject to a sensible limit on the total number of students suervised at any time!

The above list is NOT exhaustive - some alternatives include:

• Characterisation of reinforcement textiles
• Definition and measurement of the geometry
• measurement of the compression characteristics
• forces required to form fabrics into corners
• drape and wrinkling of fabric reinforcements
• accuracy of cut fabrics in net-shape fibre preforms
• novel three-dimensional textiles (with Carr Reinforcements Limited)
• Resin transfer moulding (RTM) of high fibre content composites
• preforming of reinforcement for net-shape components
• binder transport and final location during flow processes
• pressure profiles during flow processes
• Resin infusion under flexible tooling (RIFT)/resin film infusion (RFI)
• characterisation of thickness variations during the process
• characterisation of the flow media
• optimisation of boat hull manufacturing process
• study of relative positions of resin/air and voided/unvoided resin flow fronts
• Machining, bonding and repair of composites
• Joining thermoplastic composites
• Microstructural characterisation of woven composites
• composite microstructure-property relationships
• fabric geometry and topology using stylus profiling, or optical/laser and electron microscopy
• Smart materials and intelligent structures, including biomimetics
• embedded optical fibres in composite materials

NB: See also Retrospective list of composite related projects

• Characterisation of wood bark and grain patterns by Fractal Dimension (FD) and correlation to mechanical properties
  Fractal Dimension (FD) can represent an image using a single real number (0 is a point, 1 is a line, 2 is an area and 3 is a volume) [1].  ImageJ [2] software with the FracLac add-in [3] is widely used for image processing and analysis.  The project would acquire and analyse images of tree bark, and of the wood grain of cut timber, and seek to correlate that data to the timber mechanical properties. It may be appropruate to develop an app that would allow users to approach a tree in the winter forest, or furniture in a retail environment, and know the tree/wood respectively.
References:
1. J Summerscales, Fibre Distribution and the Process-Property Dilemma, in P Beaumont, C Soutis and A Hodzic (editors): The Structural Integrity of Carbon Fibre Composites, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 301-317.  PEARL
2.  ImageJ: Image Processing and Analysis in Java
3. A Karperien, Fractal Dimension and Lacunarity, 15 September 2015.
• Twisting plates and anticlastic bending as an alternative to the compression-after-impact test
  The aerospace industry uses a compression-after-impact test to ascertain the residual propertuies of damaged composites. CAI requires that samples be cut from the impacted plate. Anticlastic bending could assess the residual properties of the plate without cutting samples and permit subsequent repair and further assessment by the same test!
References:  all may have to be obtained by Inter-Library Loan!
• H Bergstraesser, Bending tests with plate strip in pure bending and square plate in pure shearing stress, and determination of moduli of elasticity and plate rigidity (Bestimmung der beiden elastischen konstanten von plattenfoermigen koerpern), NASA-TT-F-11347, 01 October 1967. NTIS N67-40139.
• RL Foye, Deflection Limits on the Plate-Twisting Test, Journal of Composite Materials, April 1967, 1(2), 194-198.
• A Nadai, Die elastischen Platten: Die Grundlagen und Verfahren zur Berechnung ihrer Fromänderungen und Spannungen, sowie die Anwendungen der Theorie der ebenen zweidimensionalen elastischen Systeme auf praktische Aufgaben, Springer, 1925.
• X Ping, Measuring In-Plane Shear Properties of Glass-Fiber/Epoxy Laminates, Journal of Composites, Technology and Research, 1980, 2(2), 3-13.
• SW Tsai, Experimental Determination of the Elastic Behavior of Orthotropic Plates, Journal of Engineering for Industry, 01 August 1965, 87(3), 315-317, and RE Beckett, RJ Dohrmann and KD Ives, Discussion, ibid, 317-318.
• JM Whitney, Application of the Plate Twist Test to Laminated Composites, AFML-TR-67-407, 1968.  AD668477.
• JM Whitney, Analytical and Experimental Methods in Composite Mechanics, ASCE Journal of the Structural Division, 1973, 99(1), 113-129.
• ASTM D3499-11 Standard Test Method for Toughness of Wood-Based Structural Panels
• ASTM D3500-14 Standard Test Methods for Structural Panels in Tension
• ASTM D3501-05a(2011)  Standard Test Methods for Wood-Based Structural Panels in Compression
• ASTM D3502-76  Test Method for Moisture Absorption of Compressed Wood Products (Withdrawn 1984)
• ASTM D3503-76  Test Method for Swelling and Recovery of Compressed Wood Products Due to Moisture Absorption (Withdrawn 1984)
• Monomer Infusion under Flexible Tooling (MIFT). To use resin infusion under flexible tooling techniques to manufacture thermoplastic matrix composites by in situ polymerisation at the infusion stage, and to determine whether appropriate bio-based monomers are commercially available?
• Effect of pulsed flow and/or vibration on flow in liquid composite moulding.  There is an idea in the industry that pulsed flow or vibration of the reinforcement pack or of the mould tool enhances flow rates and reduces void content in laminates manufactured by the liquid composite moulding (LCM including RTM and RIFT) processes.  A coherent study of these options would be timely.  The following references have been identified:
• JS Hayward and B Harris, Effect of process variables on the quality of RTM mouldings, SAMPE Journal, May/June 1990, 26(3), 39-46.
• F Song and EO Ayonrinde, Model development in the simulation of vibration assisted liquid composite moulding, 11th Annual ESD Advanced Composites Conference, Dearborn MI, 06-08 November 1995, pp 203-212.
• BS Baig and RF Gibson, Vibration assisted liquid composite moulding, 11th Annual ESD Advanced Composites Conference, Dearborn MI, 06-08 November 1995, pp 645.
• Emmanuel Ayorinde, RF Gibson, F Deng and B Baig, Vibration-assisted liquid composite molding: practical and numerical simulation, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Fluids Engineering Division (FED Publication), January 1997, 243, 177-181.
• NG Pantelelis, A Bikas and A Kanarachos, Vibration assisted resin transfer moulding (RTM) a new alternative technique to improve RTM performance and part quality, 55th Annual Technical Conference (ANTEC), Society of Plastics Engineers, 2000, pp 2351-2355.
• NG Pantelelis and A Kanarachos, Vibration assisted resin transfer moulding (VIARTM), 13th International Conference on Composite Materials (ICCM13), Beijing ~ China, 25-29 July 2001.
• R Gibson and E Ayorinde, Vibration-assisted liquid composite molding, Annual Technical Conference (ANTEC), Society of Plastics Engineers, Chicago, 2004, pp 1544-1547.
• N Pantelelis, Evaluation of the vibration assisted RTM technique in the production of real parts, 7th International Conference on Flow Processes in Composite Materials (FPCM-7), Newark DE ~ United States of America, 7-9 July 2004, pp 151-156.
• Eric Hurdle, Ultrasonic resin infusion for moulding composite articles, World Patent WO2013071422A1,priority date 18 November 2011
• Nikos Pantalelis, Tool vibrations for the advancement of the vacuum infusion process, 12th International Conference on Flow Processes in Composite Materials (FPCM-12), Enschede ~ Netherlands, 14-16 July 2014.
• R Meier, J Heim, A Nieratschker, S Zaremba and K Drechsler, Investigation of influencing parameters with respect to filling time in vibration assisted RTM processes, 19th International Conference on Composite Materials (ICCM 19), Montréal ~ Canada, 28 July-02 August 2013, 6201-6209.
• Y Peng, M Li and X Yang, Void formation and suppression in CFRP laminate using newly designed ultrasonic vibration assisted RTM technique, Composite Structures, 2024, 329, 117796.
• Effect of vacuum and moisture on infused natural fibre composites.  The processing of natural fibres requires control of moisture content in the fibres before processing and requires an extended dwell time under vacuum before infusing.  The project/s is/are to investigate both of these phenomena with the objective of arriving at guidelines for mainstream production processing.  The materials to be assessed will include zero-twist structural flax fabric, reprocessed cellulose fabric and polyester resin with a sustainable bio-content.
• Influence of resin rich volumes (RRV) on composite properties.  The aerospace industry is considering out-of-autoclave processes to reduce the manufacturing costs for aircraft structures.  However, when using a specific reinforcement the compressibility of the fabric will determine the maximum achievable fibre volume fraction. In the absence of positive pressure on the laminate, there will inevitably be a lower fibre volume fraction in the composite.  Lewin (BEng MEC 2015-16) manufactured composites using a single batch of reinforcement with minimal pressure, three distinct pressures in a vacuum bag, and using positive pressure (autoclave).  The mechanical properties (moduli and strengths) were determined to ascertain whether the properties simply scale with fibre volume fraction or if there is a greater reduction in properties as the proportion of resin increases [1].  Wilkinson (BEng MEC 2016-17) changed the process to produce high-quality composites, but there is still scope for process optimisation and cost reduction [2]. The new project would seek to optimise the post-laminate reservoir (size and materials) to ascertain whether the composites properties can be further improved, and to minimise the costs of consumables in the process.
1. G Lewin, R Cullen and J Summerscales, Cost reduction in autoclave processing II: curing resin infused composites, 13th International Conference on Flow Processes in Composite Materials (FPCM 13), Kyoto Institute of Technology - Japan, 6-9 July 2016.
2. R Wilkinson, R Cullen and J Summerscales, Curing resin infused composites in the autoclave, 21st International Conference on Composite Materials, Xi’an – China, 20-25 August 2017.
• Retention of silicone on moulded composite surfaces (with Alan Harper Composites (AHC) - Saltash).  It is becoming increasingly important to seek more cost effective routes to manufacture high fibre volume fraction composite components.  Traditionally these use consumable materials placed over/around the pre-preg or dry reinforcement to enclose them in a vacuum environment at high temperature with either just vacuum pressure or additional external pressure inside an autoclave.  There is a strong economic and technical argument for the replacement of these wasteful consumables with reusable silicone bags.  AHC market fiRST (Film Infusion Reusable Silicone Technology) low cost silicone membrane for multi-cycle use (~30-50 cycles for epoxy moulding or >500 cycles for polyester resin composites).  The aerospace industry appreciates the advantages of this proposed change, although there is an understandable concern that a "silicone footprint" remains on the component after processing even though only fully cured silicone is in contact with the moulding.
  The project will seek to determine the true silicone footprint (if any) on the surface of a moulding processed using the silicone bag.  To quantify and qualify the research results, the data should be compared to mouldings made by other accepted traditional routes.  AHC can supply small bespoke silicone test panel bags and will attend briefing and progress meetings.
  Resource: Alan Harper, Consumables or reusable – a case for a more ecological and economic approach, Proceedings of International Conference and Exhibition on Reinforced Plastics (ICERP 2011), FRP Institute, Mumbai, India, 2-4 March 2011.
• Poisson's ratio of reinforcement fibres.  Recent results from a doctoral project reported a axial Poisson's ratio of 0.45 for a jute fibre reinforced epoxy resin composite.  Using rule-of-mixtures to back-calculate a Poisson's ratio for the fibre suggests the value should be around unity.  As the fibre are expected to be anisotropic, this number is valid in the context of the Lemprière criteria.  The project would attempt to measure the axial Poisson's ratio of single fibres during tensile testing.  In AY2010/11, this would involve macrophotography and image analysis (probably ImageJ freeware).  In AY2011/12, we expect to have a tensile stage in the new electron micoscope.
• Compressibility of reinforcement and spacer media (complements the In-Mould Gel Coating (IMGC) project). ACMC is a partner in a Technology Strategy Board funded project to develop a novel process for applying the gel coat to composites in the mould.  In order to understand how the reinforcement and consumable materials perform in the RTM environment it would be useful to correlate gel-injection pressures/gel-coat thicknesses with mechanical compressibility test results.
• Z-direction adhesion tests on gel coats (complements the IMGC project).  To perform z-direction tensile tests on gel-coated surfaces and analyse failure modes (possibly including fast video recording of the tests to establish the fracture sequence).
• Drape and conformability of fabric reinforcements. The terms drape and conformability are used interchangeably to describe the ease with which a fabric reinforcement may be fitted to a double curvature surface.  It would be more useful to make a distinction between the two terms, such that drape would be defined as the natural ability of the fabric to adapt to a 2D surface, and conformability would be defined as the extent to which a fabric can be persuaded to adopt a sharp double curvature radius without wrinkling (external corners) or bridging (internal corners).  Various procedures have been proposed for the measurement of drape in textile fabrics, eg the form adopted when placed on a pipe or on a sphere.  There is a need for standardisation of such test techniques specific to high modulus fibre fabrics, which may not necessarily be the methods used for textile/apparel fabrics.  The proposed test technique would use both the pipe (single curvature) and sphere (double curvature) with the same circular piece of material.  The position of the fabric edge would be monitored at 10 degree intervals around the perimeter in each case. The extent of any coupling between the two modes of deformation would be indicated by plotting the two lines on the same graph of edge height against angle.  It may be appropriate to rotate the fabric on the pipe through 10 degree intervals and monitor the position at each increment.
Resources:
1. Nigel Wright, An investigation into the drape of reinforcement fabrics, BEng project, 1989.
2. Omar Bakkar, Drape of a reinforcement fabric, BEng Mechanical project, 1997.
3. David Simpson, Forces required to form fabric materials into mould tool radii, BEng Composites project, May 2003.
• Conformability of in-mould gel coating materials (complements the IMGC project). To analyse how the separator fabric used in the IMGC process conforms to single and double curvature surfaces
• Measuring surface quality of in-mould gel-coated composites.  It is likely that European harmonisation of Occupational Exposure Levels for styrene will drastically reduce the permitted amount in the workplace and Pollution Prevention legislation will require significant reductions at the factory boundary.  Most marine vessels have an external resin rich gel-coat which provides resistance to environmental degradation as well as a cosmetic surface.  This is normally painted on sprayed onto open moulds and is likely to be the primary source of styrene in the workplace, especially where the structural laminate can be produced by a close-mould process.  A novel techniques has been proposed to permit injection of the structural laminate separately from the injection of the gel-coat with a current research project funded by DTI Technology Programme Zero Emission Enterprises theme.  The student project will consider the practical implementation of technologies to quantify the roughness of the surface produced.
Resources:
1. Xavier Dubreuil, Investigation of gel coat surface quality by optical techniques, BEng Composites project, 2007.
2. David Ireland, Assessment of the surface finish of gel-coated composites, BEng Composites project, 2007.
• Fractal analysis of gel coat surface finish (complements the IMGC project).  A visiting researcher developed a system for the measurement of surface finish of gel-coated components by the determination of the fractal dimension from a photographed image.  This system is a potential cost-effective alternative to the Wave-Scan DOI used by the automotive industry.
Resources:

1. Quentin Labrosse, Assessment of the surface finish of gel coated composites, Stage Placement Report, June 2007 (and dark box measurement apparatus).
2. Q Labrosse, CP Hoppins and J Summerscales, Objective assessment of the surface quality of coated surfaces, Insight, January 2011, 53(1), 16-20.
• Interlaminar shear strength (with Carr Reinforcements Limited - Stockport UK).  The company is seeking an understanding of the effect of changing fibre architecture on the interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of carbon fibre reinforced composites.  They will provide reinforcement fabrics for the manufacture and testing of laminates in Plymouth.  A parallel study might consider whether the ILSS of laminates with odd numbers of layers (neutral axis within the central lamina) is greater than that of laminates with even numbers of layers (neutral axis between lamina).  Chandrasekaran et al reported "If the crack propagates along the interface between the fiber tows and the resin rich region, then the ILSS is governed by the IFSS.  However, if the crack propagates through the tows, than the ILSS is governed by the fracture energy associated with this crack path. In other words, modification of the crack path gives a higher measured strength value in the ILSS test"
Resources

1. VCS Chandrasekaran, SG Advani and MH Santare, Influence of resin properties on interlaminar shear strength of glass/epoxy/MWNT hybrid composites, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, August 2011, 42(8), 1007-1016.
• Flow enhancement in glass fibre reinforcement textiles.  Carr Reinforcements produced woven carbon fibre reinforcements with a novel flow-enhancement technology for use in liquid composite moulding.  In his Neil Pearce's PhD thesis, he demonstrated that composites manufactured using these fabrics has a sensible balance of processability and mechanical properties.  This project would undertake similar tests to ascertain whether the technology is also applicable to glass fibre reinforcements.  A simple option would be to deliberately cluster individual tows (e.g. three tows/space repeat vs unmodified fabric) and correlate flow front progression to the fabric cover factor.
Resources:

1. J Summerscales, FJ Guild, NRL Pearce and PM Russell, Voronoi cells, fractal dimensions and fibre composites, Journal of Microscopy, February 2001, 201(2), 153-162.  Restricted:  Download 1.34 MB PDF
• Reconfigurable airport seating (with Zoeftig + Company). The beam system currently offers the simplest means of mounting multiple seats onto a single supporting structure. The combination of off the shelf components and straightforward engineering techniques results in a cost-effective solution for high volume, modular mass seating.  The main limitation of a beam is that no matter how versatile the components, their capacity to be configured will always be restricted by the fixed length of the beam and the limited number of possible combinations this will accommodate.  The key engineering challenge in developing a beamless system is that it will inevitably create localised points of high structural stress and weakness in a product that will be subject to constant and demanding use.  The product must be simple to manufacture and assemble.  The use of innovative materials and manufacturing processes is encouraged.  The potential for reconfiguration of the product throughout its lifetime is also a factor that must be considered.  This project is in association with Zoeftig + Co, one of the UK’s leading passenger seating manufacturers.  You will have an opportunity to visit their factory in North Cornwall and have regular contact with their design and engineering department throughout the project.
• Correlation of the engineering and textile technology parameters for natural fibres.  Natural fibres are of uneven cross-section and may be hollow.  The project would measure mechanical fibre properties using both engineering and textile parameters and attempt to establish whether there is a correlation.  Textile technologists measure strengths in N/tex (tex is g/km) whilst engineers use N/m² (Pa).
Resources:
1. Chris Hoppins, An investigation into the correlation of the engineering and textile technology parameters for measurement of strength in natural fibres, BSc MCT project, 2007 .
• The effect of moisture levels in natural fibre before manufacturing composites on the defect levels and mechanical properties
• vacuum drying “in the bag” vs oven dry before lay-up for infusion
• “composites made of non-dry fibre could be used for enhancing moisture durability of composites and lessen the time, cost and embodied energy to produce the composites, by omitting the step of drying the fibres” [MM Lu and AW Van Vuure, Improving moisture durability of flax fibre composites by using non-dry fibres, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, August 2019, 123, 301-309.].
• CA Fuentes, KW Ting, C Dupont-Gillain, M Steensma, AG Talma, R Zuijderduin and AW Van Vuure, Effect of humidity during manufacturing on the interfacial strength of non-pre-dried flax fibre/unsaturated polyester composites, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, May 2016, 84, 209-215.
• Boring natural fibre composites with the naval shipworm: Teredo navalis.  There is increasing interest in the use of natural fibre composites in the marine environment. Teredo navalis, the naval shipworm, has spread around the world. It tunnels into underwater piers and pilings and is a major cause of damage and destruction to submarine timber structures and the hulls of wooden boats.  It would be useful to examine whether this worm is a problem for natural fibre composites in the marine environment. Schirp et al [1] have reported that southern yellow pine samples suffered heavy borer attack by Teredo spp. (shipworm) and Limnoria tripunctata (gribble) and needed annual replacement, while HDPE and LDPE matrix wood plastic composites (WPC) specimens exhibited "no marine borer attack after three years and one year of exposure, respectively".  Geographical distributions from National Biodiversity Network's Gateway.
  Photographs of gribble and consequent damage,  Teredo navalis,   shipworms in general.
  Reference:
1. A Schirp, RE Ibach, DE Pendleton and MP Wolcott, Biological degradation of wood-plastic composites (WPC) and strategies for improving the resistance of WPC against biological decay, Chapter 29 in TP Schultz, H Militz, MH Freeman, B Goodell and DD Nicholas (editors), ACS Symposium Series 982: Development of commercial wood preservatives: efficacy, environmental, and health issues, American Chemical Society, Washington DC, 2008, pages 496-497. ISBN 978-0-8412-3951-7.
• Life Cycle Assessment of natural vs man-made fibres as reinforcements.  The majority of composite materials have fibreglass as the material of construction.  In the context of sustainability, it has been proposed that glass fibres might be substituted by plant fibres, especially the bast fibres of flax, hemp and jute.  There is a, perhaps unjustified, perception that the natural fibre option is more environmentally friendly.  The man-made fibres are produced in large industrial complexes with a requirement for high temperatures to melt the raw materials.  The natural fibres are grown over large areas and incur significant transport costs plus they require fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides which may pollute watercourses.  This project would undertake a comparative life cycle analysis of the two options to reinforce or otherwise refute the above perception.
Resources:
1. John Summerscales, Resources for Life Cycle Assessment of Natural Fibre Composites and Bio-Based Resins
2. Tom Baker, Comparison of the environmental burden of natural vs glass fibres, BSc MCT project, 2007.
3. Richard Fynan, Environmental impact of composite use in the surf industry, BSc Surf Science and Technology project, April 2004.
4. MST326 coursework, 2006.
• Adapt the National Design Specification (NDS) for wood construction for use with biobased composites.  Netravali and Pastore state "A goal for biobased composite advancement is to develop user-friendly analysis and design tools.  Similar to the procedural approach taken by the National Design Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction, biobased composites could be designed using simple mechanical equations with corrective factors for conditions such as defects, moisture content and long-term loading".  [AN Netravali and CM Pastore, Sustainable Composites: fibers, resins and applications, DEStech Publications, Lancaster PA, 2015. ISBN 978-1-60595-111-9.  PRIMO].
• Marine resources as raw materials for plastics.  There is a current initiative to support the emergence of a sustainable low carbon seaweed industry in the South West. This might include using the alginates and/or oils from algae to manufacture bioplastics (instead of the petrochemical oils used at present).  The shellfish industry also produces considerable quantities of chitin from the exoskeletons of crustaceans (e.g., crabs, lobsters and shrimps). The project would consider whether materials derived from these sources, individually or in combination, might be useable as commercial materials.
Resources:

1. Se-Kwon Kim (editor): Marine Biomaterials: Characterization, Isolation and Applications, CRC Press, Boca Raton FL, 2017.  ISBN 978-1-138-07638-9.  E-book available via PRIMO.
2. Ji-Sheng Yang, Ying-Jian Xie and Wen He, Research progress on chemical modification of alginate: a review, Carbohydrate Polymers, 11 February 2011, 84(1), 33–39.
3. M Dash, F Chiellini, RM Ottenbrite and E Chiellini, Chitosan - a versatile semi-synthetic polymer in biomedical applications, Progress in Polymer Science, August 2011, 36(8), 981-1014.
4. CKS Pillai, W Paul and CP Sharma, Chitin and chitosan polymers: chemistry, solubility and fiber formation, Progress in Polymer Science, July 2009, 34(7), 641-678.
5. M Rinaudo, Chitin and chitosan: properties and applications, Progress in Polymer Science, July 2006, 31(7), 603-632.
6. K Kurita, Controlled functionalization of the polysaccharide chitin, Progress in Polymer Science, November 2001, 26(9), 1921-1971.
• Use of diatoms as a biomimetic model for the design of perforated composite plates.  In aircraft engine nacelles, there is normally a perforated composite plate as part of the sound-deadening system.  The structural requirements necessitate continuous fibres but the presence of the holes makes fibre management difficult.  The book by FE Round, RM Crawford and DG Mann (The diatoms: biology & morphology of the genera, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990. ISBN 0-521-36318-7) has several examples of diatoms where the structure includes multiple perforations.  The project would use the electron microscope to attempt to establish how nature has solved the problem of combining such multiple stress concentrations with a highly efficient structure by seeking to determine the microstructure of the diatoms adjacent to the holes.
• Fly-through simulation of reinforcement fabrics.  The University has an active research theme in the manufacture of fibre reinforced plastic matrix composites.  In the context of this problem we require a model for the surface topology of a reinforcement fabric (these are typically plain weave, twill weave or satin weave).  The classic approach is that by Peirce, although the model presented there is somewhat simplistic.  Work by Yurgartis et al extended the modelling.  It may be appropriate to use optical micrographs (or, after the PMCP project, the FIB-SEM facility in the Plymouth Electron Microspocy Centre) of actual fabric sections to build up a model of the real material.  The model would be required to:
1. calculate the effective surface area of the fabric
2. examine the contact length/area between layers
3. examine the implications of lateral shifts between adjacent layers in respect of the closeness of stacking (nesting) of the layers
4. examine the implications of rotational shifts between adjacent layers in respect of the closeness of stacking (nesting) of the layers
5. produce a fly through simulation of the space between fabric layers
Resources:

1. FT Peirce, The geometry of cloth structure, Journal of the Textile Institute, 1937, 28(.), T45-T96
2. FT Peirce, Geometrical principles applicable to the design of functional fabrics, Textile Research Journal, March 1947, 17(3), 123-134.
3. SW Yurgartis, K Maurer and J Jortner, Modelling of yarn shape and nesting in plain weave composites, Composites Science and Technology, 1993, 46(1), 39-50.
4. G Dijon, Topology of some carbon fibre fabrics, Stage Placement Report, June 1997.
5. Toby Jefferson, The surface topology and internal geometry of reinforcement fabrics for composites, BEng Manadon project, 1996.
6. Amanda McIntyre, Topology of a fabric reinforcement, BEng Composites project, 1996.
7. Kamaludin Tomiran, Topology of a fabric reinforcement for carbon fibre twill 2x2, BEng Mechanical project, 1998.
8. Michael Beck, Modelling of woven fabrics for prediction of resin flow, BEng project, 1999.
• Measurement of the surface topology of a reinforcement fabric.  The surface topology of a woven reinforcement fabric is defined by the weave structure (typically plain, twill or satin weave) and the inherent crimp in the individual tows due to the interlocking of the orthogonal fibres.  An understanding of the topology is necessary for prediction of the compressive properties of a stack of fabrics (the layers of a laminated composite) and for prediction of the wetted surface area and hence flow rates in the resin transfer moulding process, and for estimation of the extent of resin rich areas in the finished composite. The loose structure does not easily permit the use of stylus methods for the determination of topology.  Optical methods of measurement tried to date have failed to describe the topology once the curvature presents anything other than small deviations from the normal direction to the monitoring system.  The project would examine possible routes to the determination of the fabric topology, including metal sputtering to increase the transverse strength of the individual tows to permit stylus measurements and/or progressive sectioning of samples cast in resin in combination with quantitative optical microscopy.  The project should produce a database of measured values and then proceed towards a mathematical model.
Resources:

1. Robin Siddall and James Letto, Composite materials research project: topology of reinforcement fabrics, Extended Engineering TECH 006 project, 1994/95.
2. Toby Jefferson, The surface topology and internal geometry of reinforcement fabrics for composites, BEng Manadon project, 1996.
3. Amanda McIntyre, Topology of a fabric reinforcement, BEng Composites project, 1996.
4. Guillaume Dijon, Topology of some carbon fibre fabrics, Stage Placement Report, June 1997.
5. Michael Beck, Modelling of woven fabrics for prediction of resin flow, BEng project, 1999.
• A catalogue of surface textures for the range of bast reinforcement fibres and automated texture analysis for forensic discrimination of fibre type
• J Summerscales and Claire Gwinnett, Forensic identification of bast fibres, Chapter 5 in Dipa Ray (editor): The Industrial Development of High-performance Biocomposites, Woodhead/Elsevier, Cambridge, June 2017, 125-164. ISBN 978-0-08-100793-8.
• Energy-efficient manufacture of aerospace fibre-reinforced polymer composites (CoolClave).  The civil aerospace industry is increasing the proportion of fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composites in the structure of the airliner (current roll out at ~25%, Boeing 787 Dreamliner and Airbus A350XWB targetting 50%).  These large structural composites are manufactured by vacuum bag (pre-preg or infusion) processes in which they are loaded into an autoclave for curing. This process heats all the pressurised air in the vessel in order to heat the mould tool from the outside in order to heat the component contained within the tool.  In an earlier KTP(TCS) project with GKN Aerospace (IOW), mould tools were made with integral heaters adjacent to the tool surface with the outer surfaces convered by thermal insulation [1, 2].  This permits a significant reduction in energy consumption (and hence in greenhouse gas emissions), especially as it could potentially permit pressurisation with ambient temperature air provided the thermal insulation were adequate to minimise the effects of quenching on aerospace epoxy resins with a 180°C cure temperature.
  The Advanced Composites Manufacturing Centre has an advanced specification autoclave (400°C, 14 bar pressure) which would be ideal for exploratory experimental trials of this new methodology and has extensive experience in pre-preg and infusion processes [3].  The Marine and Industrial Dynamic Analysis Research Group (MIDAS) has extensive experience of advanced control algorithms which would be essential to the control of the process as proposed.  At masters level, a student might be expected to address one aspect of the following list (the integrated whole might be a full doctoral research programme):
1. investigate the use of heated tooling in combination with cool air pressurisation within the autoclave (for high-performance composites),
2. develop combined infusion/autoclave technologies and appropriate process models,
3. use a combination of experiment and numerical modelling to obtain a deeper understanding of the issues inherent in this approach,
4. develop control methodologies appropriate to the new processing regime,
5. quantify the potential for energy reduction during composite processing through the use of heated mould tools with cool air pressurisation,
6. investigate the process-property relationships for composites under different consolidation conditions.
Resources:

1. Iosif Progoulakis, Heated tooling for aerospace composite manufacture, MPhil thesis, University of Plymouth, May 2004.
2. SM Grove, I Progoulakis, T Searle, J Summerscales and P Healey, Heated tooling for aerospace composites manufacture, SAMPE Journal, November/December 2005, 41(7), 36-45.
3. J Summerscales and TJ Searle, Low pressure (vacuum infusion) techniques for moulding large composite structures, Proc IMechE Part L - Journal of Materials: Design and Applications, February 2005, L219(1), 45-58.
• Instron as a substitute for Wilhelmy balance.  The modelling of resin transfer moulding (RTM) and resin infusion under flexible tooling (RIFT) processes uses the Darcy equation for saturated (wetted) flow in porous media.  However, RTM and RIFT are unsaturated (wetting) process with an expectation that the permeability may be dependent on the chemistry and physics at the solid/liquid/vapour interfaces [1].  A common technique used to establish changes in the surface energies is the Wilhelmy plate method (normally measured using a Krüss dynamic tensiometer) where the forces exerted when the plate is inserted (advancing) and removed (receding) from the liquid are monitored.  The project would seek to establish whether equivalent data could be acquired for (a) solid plate materials, then (b) reinforcement fibres/fabrics (glass fibre has the largest diameter so would be the starting material), with a variety of model fluids and resin matrix polymers.  The literature on this topic identified so far is limited [2-6].
Resources:
1. J Summerscales, The effect of permeant on the measured permeability of a reinforcement, 7th International Conference on Flow Processes in Composite Materials (FPCM-7), University of Delaware, Newark USA, 7-9 July 2004, pp 471-476.
2. SK Li, RP Smith and AW Neumann, Wilhelmy technique and solidification front technique to study the wettability of fibres, The Journal of Adhesion, 1984, 17(2), 105-122.
3. G Giannotta, M Morra, E Occhiello, F Garbassi, L Nicolais and A D'amore, Wilhelmy plate studies of carbon fiber/viscous fluid systems, Polymer Composites, June 1993, 14(3), 224-228.
4. François Lebel, Contrôle de la fabrication des composites par injection sur renforts, PhD these, École Polytechnique de Montréal, June 2012.
5. Michael Ray Morgan, Characterizing the Effects of Capillary Flow During Liquid Composite Molding, MSc thesis, Brigham Young University – Provo, December 2015.
6. Guillaume Cazaux, Faisabilité des procédés LCM pour l’élaboration de composites renfort continu à matrice thermoplastique polyamide, Université du Havre, 2016.
• Dielectric monitoring of moisture levels in structural materials. The structural performance of materials can be significantly affected by the moisture content of the material. Grove and Wang (ACMC) are studying the effects of moisture in fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composites in the context of aerospace structures, while Goodhew et al (Sustainable Building) are concerned with the effects of moisture on building materials. As the moisture content increases, the materials generally become more “plastic” and consequently less suitable for structural application. The aerospace industry uses a “hot wet glass transition temperature” as a key design criterion. The boating industry currently uses dielectric moisture meters in the survey of vessel hulls. However, these instruments are notorious for each returning a very different value of moisture content because they use different electrode spacing and interrogation frequencies with the hull exposed to the ambient relative humidity.  The project would work towards the development of an instrument capable of using:
  1. a variety of electrode spacings,
  2. a variety of interrogation frequencies, and
  3. dynamic measurement of changing moisture levels to characterise both advanced composites and building materials.
  In addition to measuring the overall water content, it should be practical to identify any gradient in the moisture content and hence follow transport phenomena (e.g. diffusion processes).  Alternative techniques include impedance spectroscopy or free space microwave testing.
  In addition to development of the dielectric instrument, the project would seek to develop well-characterised materials for calibration purposes (fibreglass composites [1] and building materials [2]) and develop their characteristic data sets for dielectric permittivity and loss factors against moisture content.  This in turn could inform the development of a commercial instrument.
  The practical investigation could be backed up by modelling (commercial software includes the ElectroMagneticWorks (an Add-In for SolidWorks) [3] and Vector Fields Opera electromagnetic finite element software [4] but the packages may not be available at Plymouth).
Resources:

1. J Summerscales, Chapter 7: Dielectrometry, in J Summerscales (ed), Non-destructive Testing of Fibre-Reinforced Plastics Composites, Elsevier Applied Science, London 1990.
2. Matthew Greer, PhD, The effect of moisture content and composition on the compressive strength and rigidity of cob made from soil of the breccia pressures near Teignmouth, University of Plymouth, 1996.
3. ElectroMagneticWorks
4. Software for electromagnetics design
• Void transport in liquid composite moulding. During resin transfer moulding/resin infusion processes for the manufacture of composites, there is a lag between the leading edge of the resin flow front and the point at which the voids behind the flow front clear. The study would consider the relative positions of resin/air and voided/void-free resin flow fronts.
• Transportable storage container for Team GB Sailor. William Alloway, a Plymouth University Sporting Excellence Scholar and a Team GB Sailor, would like a storage box for all their equipment in the boat park.  It should be light enough to move from event to event, and hence something that can fit on the trailer, while being strong and big enough to house all of the sails and foils.
• Design of large (100m plus) composite marine vessels.  The largest composite vessels at the moment are the M5 superyacht (formerly Mirabella V) and the Swedish Visby stealth corvettes both at less then 80 m overall length.  Is there a fundamental reason for this limit ?  Is it simply the need for someone to commission and build such a vessel ?  Would it require a simple scale up of current designs or radical new concepts to compensate for the lower stiffness of materials available relative to steel ?  What might be required to persuade skippers to be first to adopt novel vessels at this size ?
• Rollerball pointer.  During public lectures it is often necessary to point at specific details of a projected image to assist in audience comprehension.  The "snooker cue" has given way to extremely light-weight hand-held laser pointers.  However, a slight movement of the hand produces a significant shift in the position of the dot on the screen.  If the pointer were to be mounted in a cradle and controlled by a computer/microprocessor it should be possible to have a stable point.  The cradle would need to be calibrated to know (say) the top left and bottom right corners to prevent the dot going off-screen.  Further, it must be possible to switch the pointer on/off as required (and possibly to switch between continuous and "flashing" modes).
• Sample carrier for lapping machine.This project arises from a Knowledge Transfer Partnership programme at Lapmaster International in Lee Mill.  They have produced a Dual Face Oscillating lapping machine for the United States.  The samples which are being machined need to be positioned on the oscillating lapping plates by a carrier, but the available space is limited.  The carrier must work in a wet abrasive environment and requires high stiffness. Subject to confirmation, the company will support the project.
• Analysis of the UK academic capability in composites and enhancement of teaching web pages.  There are a number of UK universities with interests in fibre-reinforced composite materials and structures.  The project would undertake a critical analysis of the capabilities of the respective establishments and identify areas of weakness in the UK provision which might become targets for future research projects.  In the first instance, the capabilities might be mapped against the lecture titles for module MATS347 and, where appropriate, identify enhancements to the above Teaching Support web pages.  Any student considering this project would need to bring some degree of innovation to permit it to be aligned with the project learning outcomes!